WHAT IS A NETWORK OR IP ADDRESS?

IP Address                        

Addresses in computer networks are known as IP addresses, IP stands for Internet Protocol. An IP address consists of two components the network address and the host address.

Network Address                                       

A network address is any logical or physical address that uniquely distinguishes a network node or device over a computer or telecommunications network. It is a numeric/symbolic number or address that is assigned to any device that seeks access to or is part of a network. The network address is used to find the subnet in which the computer or the device is located 

Host Address                                              Filter. The physical address of a computer in a network. On the Internet, a host address is the IP address of the machine. The host address is used to find the computer or the device in the subnet.

Example: Say the IP address of your computer at work is 192.168.32.170. The network ID of this IP address is 192.168.32.0. The host ID is 170.

IP Versions                      

There are two versions of IP that currently coexist in the global Internet: IP version 4 (IPv4) and IP version 6 (IPv6). IP addresses are made up of binary values and drive the routing of all data over the Internet. IPv4 address are separated by periods while IPv6 address are separated by colons.

IP version 4

IPv4 was the first and standard version of IP. It was deployed for production in the ARPANET in 1983. Today it is most widely used IP version. It is used to identify devices on a network using an addressing system.

The IPv4 uses a 32-bit address scheme allowing to store 2^32 addresses which is more than 4 billion addresses. Till date, it is considered the primary Internet Protocol and carries 94% of Internet traffic.

Features of IPv4:

- Connectionless Protocol

- Allow creating a simple virtual communication layer over      diversified devices It requires less memory, and ease of      remembering addresses

- Already supported protocol by millions of devices

- Offers video libraries and conferences

IP version 6 

It is the most recent and advance version of the Internet Protocol. Internet Engineer Taskforce initiated it in early 1994. The design and development of that suite is now called IPv6.

This new IP address version is being deployed to fulfill the need for more Internet addresses. It was aimed to resolve issues which are associated with IPv4. With 128-bit address space, it allows 340 undecillion unique address space. IPv6 also called IPng (Internet Protocol next generation).

Features of IPv6:

- Hierarchical addressing and routing infrastructure

- Stateful and Stateless configuration

- Support for quality of service (QoS)

- An ideal protocol for neighboring node interactio

Binary Digits                     

A binary digit, or bit, is the smallest unit of information in a computer. It is used for storing information and has a value of true/false, or on/off. An individual bit has a value of either 0 or 1.

In mathematics and digital electronics, a binary number is a number expressed in the base 2 numeral system or binary numeral system, which uses only two symbols: typically "0" (zero) and "1" (one), which is generally used to store data and implement instructions in groups of bytes. The base-2 numeral system is a positional notation with a radix of 2. Each digit is referred to as a bit, or binary digit

Classes of IP Address             

With an IPv4 IP address, there are five classes of available IP ranges: Class A, Class B, Class C, Class D and Class E, while only A, B, and C are commonly used. Each class allows for a range of valid IP addresses, shown in the following table. Supports 16 million hosts on each of 127 networks.

Note: Ranges 127.x.x.x are reserved for the loopback or local host, for example, 127.0.0.1 is the loopback address. Range 255.255.255.255 broadcasts to all hosts on the local network.

WHAT ARE THE STEPS IN CRIMPING RJ-45 CONNECTOR?

RJ-45 Connector

The "RJ" in RJ45 stands for "registered jack," since it is a standardized networking interface. The "45" simply refers to the number of the interface standard. This is an eight wire connector commonly used to connect devices into a local area network (LAN).

RJ45 is a type of connector commonly used for Ethernet networking including connection with PC network cards, data switches, Wi-Fi access points, and routers. It is connected to each end of Ethernet cables and acts as the main source for transferring data. It looks similar to a telephone jack, but is slightly wider. Since Ethernet cables have an RJ45 connector on each end, Ethernet cables are sometimes also called RJ45 cables.

Crimping Tool

A crimping tool is a device used to conjoin two pieces of metal by deforming one or both of them to hold each other. The result of the tool's work is called a crimp. 

Two Types of Ethernet Cable:

Straight-Through Cable

T568B Wiring - T568B Wiring

568A Wiring - 568A Wiring

Straight through cable is a type of  twisted pair cable that is used in a local area networks to connect different type of computer devices to a network hub such as router. Straight through refers to cables that have the pin assignments on each end of the cable. In other words, Pin 1 connector A goes to Pin 1 on connector B, Pin 2 to Pin 2. etc. Straight through wired cables are most commonly used to connect a host to a client.

Crossover Cable

T568B Wiring - T568A Wiring

568A Wiring - 568B Wiring

Crossover cable is a commonly used in most computer bet working transmission. Crossover cable for Ethernet used to connect computing devices together directly. It is most often used to connect two devices of the same type, e.g. two computers or two same type, e.g. two computers or two switches to each other such as router to router. The internal wiring of crossover cables reverses the transmission and receive signals.

Crimping RJ-45 Connector Using Scissor:

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Step 1: Cut 1 inch (25mm) into the outer sheath.

Gently cut into the plastic sheath, cut it about 1 inch (25 mm) from the end of the cable. When the scissors penetrate the sheath rotate the cable and scissors to create a cut around the cable. Don't cut too deep, make sure you don't cut into the wires inside. Then, stick your fingertips under the sheath and pull it off towards the end.

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Step 2: Separate and straighten out the wires.

Use your fingers to untwist and straighten the exposed wires after you remove the sheath. If there is a plastic core or wire separator cut it away with your scissors.

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Step 3: Put the wires in the right order.

Arrange the wires from left to right, the color order is up to you, its either the color codes of the straight-through or crossover cable that you will use. They need to be fixed in a specific order to be properly crimped into the RJ-45 connector.

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Step 4: Trim the wires 1/2 inch (13 mm).

Combine the wires and hold it with your thumb and forefinger. Then, use your scissors to cut them. Make sure they are cut evenly. The wires need to be even to fit the grooves in the connector If you cut the uneven wires move further down and cut it again so that their ends are in a straight line.

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Step 5: Fit the wires into the grooves.

Hold the connector so that the metal pins or brackets are facing up and the clip is facing down. Hold the small wires together in the correct order and slide them into the connector. They should fit into the connector grooves, with the end of the cable sheath fitting just beyond the base of the connector.

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Step 6: Press the pins down.

Locate the small metal pins at the ends of the connector grooves. Use a thin, flathead screwdriver to push each of the pins down. Push the pins 1 by 1 to press them all the way into each wire. Be careful not to crack or break the plastic connector.

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Step 7: Tug on the end to make sure it's secure. 

Double check that all the pins are pressed into the wires, and pull lightly on the connector to make sure it won't slide. Each of the pins must be inserted at the same level to form an even line. Lightly shake the cable and listen for any rattling that may indicate that one of the pins is not secure.

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WHAT ARE THE TYPES OF NETWORK CABLE?

Network Cable

Network Cables are used to connect and transfer data information between computers, routers, switches and storage area networks. It is a medium that connects computer in a network. These cables are essentially the carrier or media through which data flows.

There are different types of communication cable, and the appropriate type to use will depend on the structure and topology of the overall architecture of the system.

Types of Network Cable:

Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cable, or coax cable, is designed to transmit high-frequency signals. The coaxial cable can support longer cable lengths between two devices.

Engineers Lloyd Espenschied and Herman Affel created coaxial cable. In 1929 as more and more American households acquired telephones, the pressure was on to create a better cable to accommodate the increasing demand. That's why they created coaxial cable.

Benefits of Coaxial Cable:

• The cost of coaxial cable is less.

• The outer conductor in coaxial cable is used to improve attenuation and shield effectiveness.

• It is less susceptible to noise or interference (EMI or RFI) compare to twisted pair cable.

• It is easy to wire and easy to expand due to flexibility.

• It allows high transfer rates with coaxial cable having better.

Drawbacks of Coaxial Cable:

• It is bulky.

• It is expensive to install for longer distances due to its thickness and stiffness.

• As single cable is used for signal transmission across the entire network, in case of failure in one cable the entire network will be down.

• The security is a great concern as it is easy to tap the coaxial cable by breaking it and inserting T-joint (of BNC type) in between.

• It must be grounded to prevent interference.

A coaxial cable consists of two conductors laid concentrically along the same axis. One conducting wire is surrounded by a dielectric insulator, which is in turn surrounded by the other, outer conductor, producing an electrically shielded transmission circuit.

Fiber Optic Cable

Fiber optic cable, also called as optical fiber cable, is a type of Ethernet cable which consist of one or more optic fibers that are used to transmit data.

Kuen Kao is known as the "father of fiber optic communications" for his discovery in the 1960s of certain physical properties of glass, which laid the groundwork for high-speed data communication in the Information Age.

Benefits of Fiber Optic Cable:

• The fiber can carry large amount of data due to larger bandwidth capacity Data can be transmitted at very high speed usually 1.6 TB/sec in the field.

• It benefits for long run due to more benefits compare to earlier coaxial based systems.

• It has higher electrical resistance and gence can operate safely near to high voltage lines and equipments.

• The optical fiber transmission power is very less. 

• It does not generate any spark. Due to this fact it finds applications in automobile industry also.

Drawbacks of Fiber Optic Cable:

• Cost: The initial installation cost is higher due to expensive optical transmitter and receiver. 

• It is difficult to splice compare to wires usually at the starting and end joints. 

• When the light comes in contact with imperfection during travel and optical power is higher, it leads to destruction of fiber cable. 

• Fiber optic system can not carry electrical power which is often requirement at terminal equipments/ devices.

• Optical fiber is rather fragile and more vulnerable to damage compared to copper wires. You'd better not to twist or bend fiber optic cables.

A typical optical fiber comprises three main components: the core, which carries the light; the cladding, which surrounds the core with a lower refractive index and contains the light; and the coating, which protects the fragile fiber within. The core, which carries the light, is the smallest part of the optical fiber.

Twisted-Pair Cable

Twisted-pair cable is often used for telephone communications and most modern Ethernet network. This is one of the most common types of network cable will see today.

Twisted-pair cables have eight individual copper wires bundled together and covered with an insulating material. The copper wire is always color-coded with a plastic insulation and they are twisted in pairs for a total of four pairs. The bundled wires are covered with an outer jacket for additional insulation and protection and to make it easier to pull through conduits.

Two Main Types of Twisted-Pair Cable:

Unshielded Twisted-Pair - is the most common form of twisted pair wiring. A cable with wires that are twisted together to reduce noise and crosstalk. 

UTP has each pair of wires twisted together. Those wires are then wrapped in tubing without any other protection.

Shielded Twisted-Pair - is a twisted pair cable confined in foil or mesh shield that guards the cable against electromagnetic interference.

STP has the individual pairs of wires wrapped in foil, which are then wrapped again of foil for double protection.

Mainly what are considered the disadvantages of the Shielded are the advantages of the unshielded. For most networks, whether they be home or in an office, unshielded should be fit for purpose. They cancel out interference by being twisted, just as the shielded but at a way more precise level.

Benefits of Twisted-Pair Cable:

• It's relatively easy to implement and terminate.

• It is the smallest amount expensive media of transmission for brief distances.

• If portion of a twisted pair cable is broken it doesn't effect the whole network. 

• Less vulnerable to electrical interference caused by nearby equipment or wires.

• High-cost performance.

Drawbacks of Twisted-Pair Cable:

• It result signal distortion in a very effective manner.

• It supports 10 mbps up to a distance of 100 meters on a 10BASE-T which are considered to be low bandwidth.

• It provides poor security and is relatively easy to tap.

• As they a thin so can be easily breakable. 

• Susceptible to electromagnetic interference (EMI).

Twisted-pair cabling was invented by Alexander Graham Bell in 1881.This represented an early implementation of twisting, with a twist rate of about four twists per kilometer, or six per mile. Such open-wire balanced lines with periodic transpositions still survive today in some rural areas.

WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT NETWROK DEVICES?

Network Devices

Hardware devices that are use to connect computers, printers, fax machines and other electronic devices to a network are called network devices. These devices transfer data in a fast, secure and correct way over same or different network. Network devices may be inter-network or intra-network.

It can transmit and receive wireless HART  data and perform the basic functions necessary to support network formation and maintenance. Network devices include field devices, router devices, gateway devices, and mesh hand-held devices.

Need for Computer Networking. Computer Networks help users on the network to share the resource and in communication... File sharing: Networking of computers helps the network users to share data files. Hardware sharing: Users can share devices such as printers, scanner, CD-ROM drives, hard drives etc.

Types of Network Devices:

Hub

A hub is a physical layer networking device  which is used to connect multiple devices in a network. A hub is a simple device that directs data packets to all devices connected to it. They are generally used to connect computers in a LAN. 

A hub has many ports in it. A computer which intends to be connected to the network is plugged in to one of these ports. In a hub, a message is passed along or broadcast to every one of its ports. It receives a packet of data (an Ethernet frame) at one of its ports from network devices, it transmit (repeats) the packet to all of its ports to all of the other network devices... Hubs operate in such a way that all data received through one pot is sent to all ports. 

Switch

Similar to hubs, switches are the connectivity point of a wired network. A switch is a data link layer networking device which connect devices in a network and used packets switching to send and receive data over the network.

Like hub, a switch also has many ports, to which computers are plugged in. If a hub forwards the data it receives to all ports on the device, a switch forwards the data it receives only to port that connects to the destination. However when a data frame arrives at any port of a network switch, it examines the destination address and sends the frame to the corresponding device(s). Thus, it supports both unicast and multicast communications.

Router

Routers are completely different devices.  A router acts as a dispatcher, choosing the best route for your information to travel. It connects your business to the world, protect information from security threats, and can even decide which computers get priority over others.

If a hub or switch is concerned with transmitting frames, the job of a router, as its name implies, is to route to other networks until that packet ultimately reaches its destination. A router helps you connect multiple devices to the Internet, and connect the devices to each. Also, you can use routers to create local network of devices.  It can transmit through wired and wireless networks. These local networks are useful if you want to share files among devices or allow employees to share software tools.

Network Bridge

A bridge is used to divide larger networks into smaller sections. A network bridge is a computer networking device that creates a single aggregate network from multiple communication networks or network segments. This function is called network bridging. 

It is located between two physical network segments and manages the flow of data between the two. By looking at the physical address of the devices connected to each segment, bridges can forward the data if the destination address is on another interface, or block it from crossing if verified that it is on the interface from which it came.

Types of Bridges:

Transparent Bridge - derives its name from the fact that the devices on the network are unaware of its existence. A transparent bridge does nothing except block or forward data based on the MAC address.

Source Route Bridge - is used in Token Ring networks. The source route bridge derives its name from the fact that the entire path to be taken by the packet through the network is embedded within the packet.

Translation Bridge - is used to convert one networking data format to another; for example, from Token Ring to Ethernet, and vice versa.

Network Interface Card

A Network interface controller (NIC, also known as a network interface card, network adapter, LAN adapter or physical network interface, and by similar terms) is a device that enables computer to connect to the network. 

To install or configure a network interface, you will need drivers of the device. You might also need to configure it, although many devices are now plug and play. Most networking cards are now software configured. Early network interface controllers were commonly implemented on expansion cards that plugged into a computer bus. 

Modem

A modem, short for modulator/ demodulator, is a device that converts the digital signals generated by a computer into analog signals that can travel over conventional phone lines and that is used especially to transmit and receive information between computer via landlines.

It is a hardware component that allows a computer or another device, such as a router or switch, to connect to the internet. The modem converts the signal back at the receiving end. It coverts it into a format the computer can understand. A modem can be used as a means to connect to an ISP, or as a mechanism for dialing up to a LAN. Dial up modem also required full use of the local telephone line. meaning voice calls would interrupt the internet connection.

Transceivers

The Transceiver is responsible for placing signals onto the network media and detecting incoming signals traveling through the same wire. In a network environment, a transceiver gets its name from being both a transmitter and a receiver of signals, such as analog or digital.

The term transceiver does describe a separate network device, but it can also be technology built and embedded in devices such as network cards and modem. Technically. on a LAN the transceiver is responsible to place signals onto the network media and also detecting incoming signals traveling through the same cable. 

Chip Transceivers - are small and are inserted into a system board or wired directly on a circuit board.

Module Transceivers - are external to the network and are installed and function similar to other computer peripherals or they can also function as stand-alone devices.

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Routers, hubs and switches are network device terms that tend to be used interchangeably. The functions of the three devices are quite different from another, even though at times, they are all integrated into a single device,

Each device serves as a central connection for all of your network equipment and handles a data type known as frames. A frame carries your data. when a frame is received, it is amplified, and then transmitted on to the port of destination PC. The big big difference between frames is in the method in which frames are being delivered.

Networking has many components that make it work efficiently. Devices, when combined, will enable a faster transmission of data.

WHAT ARE THE TYPES OF NETWORK TOPOLOGY

Network Topology 

Network topology refers to the layout or structure of the network in relation with the flow of data. Can be used to define or describe the arrangement of various types of telecommunication network, including command and control radio networks, industrial field busses and computer networks. It is a substantial arrangement of a network in which all nodes are connected with each other using network link or connecting lines. Apart from just describing how he nodes are interconnected, network topology also explains how the data is transferred in a network. And may be depicted physically or logically.

Howard Frank had founded Network Analysis Corporation (NAC), a company specializing in topological design based on hid groundbreaking work at the Office of Emergency Preparedness (OEP). Frank remembers Robert's call requesting a meeting: Arpanet was a four node network

Physical Topology refers to the interconnected structure structure of a local area network (LAN). The method employed to connect the physical devices on the network with the cables, and the type of cabling used, all constitute the physical topology.

Logical Topology is a concept in networking that defines the architecture of communication mechanism for all nodes in a network. Using network equipment such as routes and switches, the logical topology of a network can be dynamically maintained and reconfigured.

Types of Network Topologies:

Linear Bus Topology

Linear bus topology is a type of network topology where each device connects one after the other in a sequential chain (shown right). In this case, the bus is the network connection between the devices. It uses a long cable, referred to as a backbone, to which computers and other devices attached. If any link in the network chain is severed, all transmission is halted.

Advantages of Linear Bus Topology:

👍 It is the easiest network topology for connecting             peripherals or computer in a linear fashion.

👍 It works very efficient well when there is a small           network.

👍 It requires less cable length than the star topology.

👍 It is easy to connect or remove devices in this network       without affecting any other devices.

👍 Very cost-effective as compared to the other network         topology i.e. mesh and star

Disadvantages of Linear Bus Topology:

👎 Bus topology is not great for large network.

👎 Identification of problem becomes difficult if whole         network goes down.

👎 The entire network shuts down if there is a break in the     backbone.

👎 Need of terminators are required at both ends of main         cable.

👎 This network topology is very slow as compared to other       topologies.

Bus topology is one of the simplest physical topology used for the network. This topology is famously used for Local Area Network.  Small workgroup whose computers are connected using thinnest cable. Trunk cables connecting hubs or switches of department LANs to form a larger LAN.

Star Topology

Star topology is one of the most common network setups. In this configuration, every node connects to a central network device, like a hub, switch, or computer. The central network device acts as a server and the peripheral devices acts as clients. Data from the computer passes through the hub or switch before it can reach the other target node.

Advantages of Star Topology:

👍 Easy to install and wire.

👍 No disruptions to the network when connecting or removing     devices

👍 Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.

👍 Centralize management of the network, through the use of     central computer, hub, or switch.

👍 It provides very high speed data transfer.

Disadvantages of Star Topology:

👎 Entire performance of the network depends on the single       device hub.

👎 If the hub device goes down, the entire network will be       dead.

👎 Requires more wires compared to the ring and bus topology.

👎 Purchasing the network cabling and file servers can be       expensive.

👎 Viruses can spread to other computers throughout a           computer network.

Stark network topologies are common in home networks, where the central connection point may be a router, switch or networking hub. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Ethernet cabling is typically used to connected devices to the hub, though coaxial cable or optical fiber may also be employed.

Ring Topology

Ring topology is a network configuration where device
connections create circular data path. Wherein nodes are connected to each other forming one contiguous pathway in a ring formation. In other words, data need to travel from one node to the next, with each one receiving data traffic and passing it along to the next until it reaches its final destination.

Advantages of Ring Topology:

👍 All data flows in one direction, reducing the packet         chance of packet collisions.

👍 Each repeater duplicates the data signals so that there       is a very little signal degradation.

👍 A network server is not needed to control network             connectivity between each workstation.

👍 Data can transfer between workstations at high speed.

👍 Additional workstations can be added without impacting       performance of the network.

Disadvantages of Ring Topology:

👎 All data being transferred over the network must pass         through each workstation on the network, which can make       it slower than a star topology.

👎 The entire network will be impacted if one workstation       shuts down.

👎 It is expensive.

👎 Difficult to troubleshoot the ring.

👎 Addition and removal of any node during a network is         difficult and may cause issue in network activity.

Ring topology are most often found on school campuses, though some commercial organizations also use them. FDDI, SONET, or Token Ring technology are typically used. In Wide Area Networks (WAN) and Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN), a ring topology is used to as the topology for the backbone connect the costumers.

Mesh Topology

Mesh topology is a network setup where each computer and network device is interconnected with another. This network are structures wherein all the nodes on the network can route data traffic on their one. This topology setup allows for most transmission to be distributed even if one of the connections goes down. Has multiple connections, making it the most fault tolerant topology available.

Advantages of Mesh Topology:

👍 Manages high amounts of traffic, because multiple devices     can transmit data simultaneously.

👍 A failure of one device does not cause a break in the         network or transmission of data.

👍 Adding additional devices dost not disrupt data               transmission between other devices.

👍 Fault identification is easy because of point to point       connection.

👍 It provides high privacy and security.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology:

👎 Requires high NO: of cables and I/o ports for                 communication.

👎 Installation is very difficult in mesh topology, as each     node is connected to every node.

👎 Mesh topology is costly compared to other network             topologies

👎 The chance of redundant connections is high, which adds       to the high costs and potential for reduced efficiency.

👎 Building and maintaining the topology is difficult and       time consuming

Mesh topology is a type of networking where all nodes cooperate to distribute data amongst each other. This topology was originally develop 30+ years ago for military applications, but today, they are typically used for things like home automation, smart HVAC control, and smart buildings.

Hybrid Topology

Hybrid  topology is a type network topology  that uses two or

more differing network topologies in such way the final network does not exhibit one of the characteristics of the standard topologies. This combination of topologies is done according to the requirements of the organization. Good examples of a hybrid network are star-ring and star-bus network.

Advantages of Hybrid Topology:

👍 Hybrid network combines he benefits of different types of     topologies.

👍 Can modified as per requirement. 

👍 It is extremely flexible.

👍 It is very reliable.

👍 It is easily scalable.

Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology:

👎 The design of a hybrid network is complex.

👎 It is expensive.

👎 Hardware changes are required in order to connect             topology to another topology.

👎 Installation is a difficult process.

👎 Hubs which are use to connect two distinct network, are       very costly. And hubs are different from usual hubs as       they need to be intelligent enough to work with different     architectures.

If there is a Mesh topology in one office department while a Ring topology is another department, connecting these two with bus topology will result in Hybrid topology. The choice to use hybrid topology over a standard topology depends on the need of a business, school, or the users.